The Age Of Criminal Responsibility Criminology Essay

The Age Of Criminal Responsibility Criminology Essay One must be aware that the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child professes anyone under the age of eighteen is a child. However, in the criminal law, greater distinctions are made: anyone under 18 is a juvenile, aged 14-18 are classed as young persons and a person under 14 years old are classed definitively as a child. What does it mean to be a child in this modern era? Every person has experienced life as a child and could easily accumulate their own perspective, but that is exactly what it would be; a subjective definition that begins with infancy and ends when they reach adolescence. However, adolescence, for legal purposes must portray a mental, intellectual, emotional and more specifically, a moral capacity to differentiate right from wrong. Before one looks at the legal observations of childhood, it is only sensible to consider the words of those who dedicate their lives to the study of child psychology, and ultimately have wider knowledge. Psychological theory Piaget in his work, The Moral Judgement of the Child  [1]  established a theory of not only the cognitive, but also the moral development of a childs mind, prà ©cising that they cannot undertake certain tasks until they are psychologically mature enough to do so. The psychologist Kohlberg expanded on Piagets position  [2]  , and their theories make it plain that by ten children are not capable of making moral decisions similar to that of an adult, as they have not fully learned to do so. The theories suggest that there are 2 stages of moral reasoning (which sometimes overlap) named the heteronomous stage and the autonomous stage. At the heteronomous stage, the child is egocentric and believes the world revolves around them, and they will act depending on the severity of the outcome. This stage continues past the age of ten, so before they reach the next stage it is unlikely that they will be aware of the severity of any outcome. Subsequently, when they are in the autonomous stage, intentions are more important than the consequences of action and should be the basis for judging behaviour, and it is then that a child should be held accountable for his or her actions, not before. The theories suggested here are, of course, non-conclusive and non-exhaustive, but at least give an insight into the questionable nature of the entire concept of an absolute age of criminal responsibility, so it would be worthwhile to keep these theories in mind throughout the discussion. The age of criminal responsibility The age of criminal responsibility in England and Wales is ten years.  [3]  All children under this age are presumed to be doli incapax (incapable of committing a crime). After reaching the age of ten however, and as Elizabeth Stokes informs us, there is nothing within the substantive criminal law regarding the attribution of guilt, which distinguishes the responsibility of young people from that of adults.  [4]   The Home Office White Paper in 1997, signalled the start of New Labours tough and punitive, No More Excuses campaign by declaring that; Young people who commit offences must face up to the consequences of their actions for à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ No young person should be allowed to feel that he or she can offend with impunity à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ Punishment is important as a means of expressing societys condemnation of unlawful behaviour and as a deterrent.  [5]   Even though there was much discussion with reference to raising the age in the late 1960s after the Government White paper Children in Trouble  [6]  (1968) along with Section 4 of the Children and Young Persons Act 1969 which would have raised the age of criminal responsibility to 14 but was never implemented and the provision was repealed in 1991. This introduced an unnaturally bold dividing line between criminal responsibility and irresponsibility for children who offend. This was the case even though arguments have been put forward suggesting that to criminalise and label children is very dangerous, with Deborah Orr proposing that, if a child has behaved in a fashion that he or she feels he had little or no control over, and then is told this is criminal, then the child is being taught that his or her criminality is something over which he has no control.  [7]  The following doctrine attempted to decrease the amount of children being labelled until it was abolished. Doli incapax Protection or a waste of time? Before the Crime and Disorder Act 1998 which abolished the doctrine, there had existed for hundreds of years  [8]  protection for children aged between 10 and 14 years. This protection was the rebuttable presumption that children were doli incapax. Under this legal doctrine, as expounded in the case of C v DPP  [9]  in addition to committing the actus reus and mens rea of a criminal offence the prosecution also had to prove beyond reasonable doubt that they knew what they were doing was seriously wrong. This doctrine was working as a filter which recognised childhood to stop 10 being the absolute age of criminal responsibility. Children aged between 10 and 14 years benefited from the presumption as it protected them from the detrimental effects of the enforcement of criminal law.  [10]  But despite this, it could be suggested that the doctrine did not work as it was professed to as it still did not stop children being prosecuted; as the prosecution only had to prove that children knew the difference between the extreme opposites of right and gravely wrong, and not mere naughtiness and wrong. For example, Bandalli suggests that children have a very flexible approach to ownership, if one were to look at the contents of the Theft Act 1968, s.1(1) describes the crime as dishonesty with intent to permanently deprive a concept which children might only be aware of as merely borrowing. So in practice it did not work sufficiently, but it cannot be ignored that it had very strong symboli sm, which was arguably the most important aspect. The symbolism of the doctrine An excellent point made by Pickford questions why the opponents of abolition continue to have faith in a doctrine which has proved to be so inadequate in protecting children anyway.  [11]  But this is perhaps because at least some acknowledgement was given to the notion of childhood with doli incapax, differentiating their treatment from that of adults. It made the police, the CPS and the judiciary stop and think about the degree of responsibility for each individual child,  [12]  and doing that, however briefly, kept the childhood status in tact. The symbolism of the abolition In spite of these arguments, Jack Straw said on 3 June 1998; with great respect, we are abolishing the concept of doli incapax and thus England and Wales saw the erosion of the policy of protection. However, this was combated with the justification that removal of protection was removal of excuse culture.  [13]  Nevertheless, supporters of the doctrine still implore the judiciary to recognise at least some protection. The recent case of R v T  [14]  in 2008 it was proposed that only the presumption had been abolished  [15]  and that the defence remained in tact. But this proposition was quickly flattened and children aged 10-14 would be treated in the same way as other juveniles in deciding whether to prosecute. The abolition of doli incapax was discoursed in conjunction with increasing the age of criminal responsibility, but now there has been an absolute abolition, the government has carried out one without the other, and has left a vacuum where protection should be. Th erefore, what doli incapax stood for; its symbolism of protection was quashed and children are treated like adults once again. The possible justifications for this are set out in Part Two. PART TWO CRIMINALISATION AND THE RIGHTS OF THE CHILD There is little doubt that punitive imperatives have shaped contemporary policy responses to child offenders in England and Wales.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Goldson (2002) The government is ignoring the widespread discourse and European recommendations about the rights of children. With their apparent stubbornness, not to mention the abolition of the centuries old presumption of doli incapax, the question is why are we wedded to the extreme desire to pull children into the criminal justice system and criminalise, rather than taking the civil route which is based on the foundations of protection and welfare? Their policy has brought a large group of children under the auspices of the criminal justice system where previously they may have been successfully diverted. This current punitive climate can be justified to an extent because people have an innate interest in punishment. Namely, they will view children as adults seeing them as autonomous beings who bear responsibility for what they do, despite their age. In the NACRO youth crime briefing as recent as December 2008, the Committee expresses concern about the findings of a survey commissioned by Barnados  [16]  which show the negative public perception of children: 49% of people believe that children are increasingly a danger to each other and adults, 54% agreed that children are beginning to behave like animals, 35% of people feel like the streets are infested with children. In addition to this, after the 1994 government submission to the UNCRC, Barnados and the NSPCC highlighted their outrage of what the government purported to be happening in England and Wales, that it did not reflect what was happening in reality, and thus decided to write their own submissions such as these, showing that the UK Government has much to answer for. The public have a diverse perception of children in contrast with psychologists  [17]  and they want to prosecute them. To prosecute and put a child through the criminal system costs between  £75,000 (for a youth to be in a young offenders institute) and  £150,000 (for secure accommodation).  [18]  Although it might be a generally useful deterrent to use the threat of prosecution, recently it can be seen how arbitrarily it is used (which is in breach of Art 37(b) United Nation Convention on the Rights of the Child). For example, an article in The Mail Online  [19]  states that in Newark, Nottinghamshire, letters of warning have been sent out that children face prosecution and fines of up to  £100 if they annoy neighbours with ball games. . But if the child was to be prosecuted for kicking a ball around in the street, what would this really achieve? The answer is nothing. Prosecution and custody in this respect would be equivalent to an employer paying a new employee to go through a process which they know does not work,  [20]  which is obviously a waste of time for everyone involved. The government maintains that it is providing proportionate penalties for child offending and in its report to the CRC states they are keen to ensure that children are not prosecuted whenever an alternative can be found but the NACRO youth crime briefing successfully contests this articulating even those who are diverted [away from the courts] by being dealt with reprimand of final warning, are in effect [still] criminalised. It is also exceptionally questionable whether children should be tried in the Crown Courts, as the NACRO briefing  [21]  suggests that the Crown Court is primarily an arena for dealing with adult offenders through jury trial, and children who commit grave crimes are, in large degree, processed as if they were adults.  [22]   And so, in the shadow of sympathetic European progressiveness, New Labour, with its No More Excuses draconian approach has conceded to the whims of the public and are practically stealing away what it is to be a child, including what they deserve and have a right to protection, which a higher age of criminal responsibility would ensure. In Europe: UN Convention on the Rights of the Child (UNCRC) According to United Nations Committee on the Rights of the Child regarding the age of criminal responsibility, countries should consider whether a child can live up to the moral and psychological components of criminal responsibility and notes that if the age of criminal responsibility is set too low the notion of responsibility would become meaningless. The Committee has recommended State Parties not to set a minimum age of criminal responsibility at a too low level and to increase an existing minimum age to an internationally acceptable level concluding that the minimum age below the age of 12 is considered unacceptable. According to UK Childrens Commissioners Report to the UNCRC, although the UK has ratified the UNCRC, the Convention is not part of domestic law and remains unenforceable. Recent legislative and policy developments are in clear breach of the UNCRC, for example, the naming and shaming of children subject to anti-social behaviour orders  [23]  . Even if these did not breach the Convention rights, it would be unsuccessful anyway, as some children, especially the higher end of the spectrum would actually be proud of having an ASBO, or as Deborah Orr suggests  [24]  , they would be badges of pride and perverse achievements. Thompson and Venables case study How it came about that two mentally normal boys aged 10 of average intelligence committed this terrible crime is very hard to comprehend . . . Morland, J The cases of R v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex parte V. and R. v. Secretary of State for the Home Department, Ex parte T, concerned Robert Thompson and Jon Venables, both 10 ½ year old boys, being convicted of the murder of a two year old boy. They were only just over the age of criminal responsibility. They were sentenced to detention during Her Majestys Pleasure and the trial Judge; Morland J set the minimum term to be served at eight years to reflect their extreme youth. The NACRO youth crime briefing  [25]  Grave crimes, mode of trial, and long term detention, reports that the European Court of Human Rights (ECHR hereafter) determined that the defendants were denied a fair trial since they were unable to participate effectively in the proceedings given the nature of the court room and the intense public scrutiny saying the formality and ritual of the Crown Court must have seemed incomprehensible and intimidating for a child of eleven. This breaches Art 3 of the Convention, to have the best interests of the child as the primary consideration. The Youth Crime Briefing  [26]  reports that even after the Lord Chief Justice issued a Practice Direction (in February 2000), which gave guidance for the conduct of such proceedings and calls upon Crown Courts to have regard to the welfare of the child and to avoid exposing him or her, so far as possible, to intimidation, humiliation or distress (my emphasis added),further cases go on to breach Convention rights. This was detailed in the case of SC v UK  [27]  where an eleven year old boy who did not have the intellectual, moral or cognitive capacity for his age group, had his right to a fair trial breached even though the procedure adopted would have complied with the Practice Direction. The ECHR stated that: [He] has little comprehension of the role of the jury . Even more strikingly, he does not seem to have grasped the fact that he risked a custodial sentence, and even once sentence had been passed à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ he appeared confused and expected to be able to go home with his foster father. The Court then went on to make recommendations as to how a child with the handicap of childhood should be processed that they should be tried in a specialist tribunal noting afterwards that there are at present no proposals to develop one. The United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Administration of Juvenile Justice The Beijing Rules. The Beijing Rules adopted by the General Assembly in 1985, specifies in section 4.1 that the lower age of criminal responsibility shall not be fixed at too low an age level, bearing in mind the facts of emotional, mental and intellectual maturity. The commentary states that a specific approach should be taken, which is whether a child can live up to the moral and psychological components of criminal responsibility and making explicit reference to the individual discernment and understanding. This relates profusely to the theories that Piaget and Kohlberg propose where they have said that moral development is a continual process that occurs throughout the lifespan, and I would suggest that to fix the age at ten is to put a limit on an uncertain event, that is to say, they are severely generalising the mental capacity of children, leading to injustices in the due process that children are entitled to have. Even if it can be argued that increasing the age would lead to net-widening of children (who may have developed moral capacity earlier) being excused for crimes, that does not displace the argument that the majority of crimes committed by children are minor, and could be prevented with concern for the individual offender and n ot the offence. . In fact, the Beijing Rules state in part 11.1, consideration shall be givenà ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦to dealing with juvenile offenders without resorting to formal trial emphasizing that, this practice [will] serve to hinder the negative effects of subsequent proceedings, such as the stigma of conviction and sentence. The Rules also make clear the relationship that the age of criminal responsibility must have with its other limitation counterparts; the legal age of consent, the legal age of drinking, marital status, civil majority for example. There is also the notion of the need of a higher mental intelligence, emotional and moral capacity to be responsible in respect to all of these, and this just does not sit well with having the age of criminal responsibility at ten.  [28]   Risk and Predictive Factors In addition to disregarding the Beijing Rules, the government have actually contributed to the reason that children are committing crimes, evidenced by certain predictive factors that have led to increased youth crime in certain contexts. The Youth Offending Board  [29]  maintains that anti-social behaviour and crime is not immediately down to the childs choice, but rather the context in which they are placed. From their web page headed, Targeted Prevention of Youth Crime and Anti-Social Behaviour they raise the policy issue of funding for a start, and reinforce that, one of the best and most cost-effective ways to reduce youth crime is to prevent young people from getting into trouble in the first place, by dealing with the problems that make it more likely they will commit crime or anti-social behaviour. They then proceed to list possible predictive factors such as lack of or poor education, poor family relationships (bad parenting), and the child living in public housing locat ed in high risk, inner city areas. To start with, the report from the UK Childrens Commissioners to the UN Committee on the Rights of the Child evidenced that child poverty is high with around 3.1 million people living in poverty (29% of children) in England and more than 1 million children living in poor housing, which is a possible reason why children commit crime. Here it is not individual choice, but the governments own policy that is creating the increased likelihood of child offenders. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation suggests that current measures mean child poverty will rise from 18% to 33% over the next 20 years. They say the poverty gap is created by state benefits which are linked to inflation, rather than earnings, and that is of government concern. And so, if the Government is likely to miss its target to halve the number of children living in poverty by 2010, then they are in theory adding to the offending rates instead of reducing them, defeating their whole objective of being tough on crime. Other factors arise from poor parenting and bad education. In a speech to the Association of Teachers and Lecturers in 2002, the former education secretary Estelle Morris argued that bad parenting has created a cycle of disrespect among children, and again does not show it to be the individuals own choice. Poor education leads to truancy, alcohol misuse and other antisocial activities that adults would not be punished for. The Joseph Rowntree Foundation found that almost half the young people aged 11 to 17 reported committing at least one criminal act in a survey of 14,000 school students.  [30]  It is fair to argue that this shows crimes are being committed by children to whom doli incapax formerly applied, but this paper is not insisting that children between 10 and 14 do not commit crimes, it is reiterating that the punitive measures for this age group are a step backwards in an otherwise progressive world, and alternative measures are needed. The government have excused thems elves of any blame, when it is obvious from the above factors that they have an inherent part to play. Children are no longer treated as special cases when it comes to the types of penalties available to the courts when they ought to be. The status of childhood still remains and needs to be protected. But condemning children to the penalties that adults have, they are subverting the whole concept of childhood and are returning to the stage in history where children were no less than little adults  [31]  a definition which philanthropists such as Mary Carpenter in the very early stages of the youth justice system were trying to eradicate. PART THREE ALTERNATIVES Justice/Welfare Burgeoning youth incarceration and high reconviction rates in England and Wales have prompted a search for alternative responses. Pitts and Kuula  [32]   The overall aims of the criminal justice system are to avoid future re-offending and to exact retribution on behalf of the victim and society  [33]  as defined in s.37 of the Crime and Disorder Act 1998. The UK government for England and Wales have two main options they could take towards a child who has committed a crime; a diversionary approach operating at a cautionary level or to prosecute amounting to either a judicial process of punishment on the basis of harm done or a punishment approach regarding the welfare of the child. The inability to comply with the UNCRC recommendations is exposed where they take the punitive route almost every time. The response to juveniles oscillates between the justice or welfare approach, that is to say whether you look to the offence of the offender. The welfare approach is founded on determinist reasons outside of the childs control, so he or she bears no responsibility. However the justice approach appears to predominate in England and Wales, which will inevitably mean that the age of criminal responsibility will remain too low, as it does not allow a child to be anything but responsible. Civil Law approach The civil family law is an example of the welfare approach. There is an odd dichotomy because, in contrast with the criminal law which employs a fixed cut-off point, family law takes an individualised and functional approach, joined with a completely different perception of childhood, which is in line with the UNCRC. The perception seems nearer to that outlined by Piaget and Kohlberg which understands the vulnerable and dependent nature of a child, and again works on the basis that the childs welfare is paramount. Helen Keating also suggests that the child may also be seen as incompetent in legal terms, and that developmental discourse has found expression in law and has made its way into the system through the test formulated from Gillick v West Norfolk and Wisbech Area Health Authority and Another  [34]  . . The level of competence required is sufficient understanding and intelligence to enable him to understand fully what is proposed and sufficient discretion to enable him to make a wise choice in his or her own interests.  [35]  Despite the problems that the test can amount to, such as delay in ascertaining the competence, its influence has become enshrined in statute. The Children Act 1989 even begins with a checklist for the welfare principle stating that the court should have regard to the the ascertainable wishes and feelings of the child considered in the light of his or her age and understanding.  [36]  Ã‚   . There is no such parallel in criminal law, which begs the question of why two systems running side by side are contradictory. It cannot be that the children in family law cases are more vulnerable than those in criminal law, so it must be due to the approach. The UK Government should take a step back and try to ignore the distorted perceptions of children that the public emanate, and look more closely at the individual child perhaps even looking at them as if they were their own young. Comparative Systems With the New Labour policy so behind most other countries it is unsurprising that one can find models of welfare based systems which, despite their own shortcomings (such as paternalistic decision-making) still puts us to shame. Lesley McAra introduces a substantive summary of the developments in Scottish Youth Justice  [37]  noting it exhibited a high degree of stability in its welfare based institutional framework and policy ethos, up until it started acting like England. By filtering in punitive measures such as anti-social behaviour legislation when the Children (Scotland) Act was passed in 1995, Scotland has conceded to the publics moral panics about persistent offenders and is transforming. The fact that their age of criminal responsibility is going to raise to 12 (from 8) when the Scottish Governments Criminal Justice and Licensing Bill passes in 2009, may just have saved them from themselves. This was the philosophy of the Kilbrandon Committees  [38]  childrens hearing system. Here a child, passing several grounds for referral (which are astonishingly similar to the grounds that the civil (family) law invokes for a Care Order  [39]  .. is or is likely to suffer serious harm and/or with admission of guilt) are referred to a tribunal consisting of lay-people, who operated from a needs not deeds viewpoint was in direct contrast with Englands Ingleby Committee. It will bring Scotland into line with most of Europe, but the Scottish Government said the rise would not mean letting off younger offenders, as Justice Secretary Kenny MacAskill said amongst recent discourse, Evidence shows that prosecution at an early age increases the chance of reoffending so this change is about preventing crime. Rather they will be held to account in a way that is appropriate for their stage of development and ensures that we balance their needs with the need to protect our communities. Similarly in Finland a different approach is taken. The age of criminal responsibility is 15, and their answer is to look at the child on the whole; their environment whilst dividing children into their age groups based on cognitive functions, needs, and understanding. Moving from a punitive to welfare syste

Justice is a theme of all great literature Essay

Justice comes from actions and decisions being balanced, in that when someone does a good thing, they are rewarded, and when they do something bad, they are punished. It is the gods’ primary role to hand out justice and make sure everybody is treated fairly. This theme appears immediately in the Odyssey, as Zeus is considering the story of Aegisthus, who courted Agamemnon’s wife and then killed Agamemnon. Aegisthus was killed for this treacherous act. This story of justice shows us instantly that the Odyssey will be strongly structured around it. â€Å"May all who act as he did share his fate! † says Athene. This shows how openly the gods in the Odyssey despised the works of those who went against the will of the gods. Both Nestor and Menelaus repeat this story of Aegisthus, and as god fearing men, they know how important it is to stay on their right side because they know what happens as a result of an imbalance in terms of justice. The Aeneid opens however and we’re told that the poem is based on the founding of Rome and the main string of ‘justice’ seems to be coming from one scorned goddess, who simply doesn’t want her favourite city to be destroyed. The balance she tries to restore is simply an act of revenge rather than actual justice, and rather than convincing the other gods it’s the right thing to do, she simply bribes Aeolus. Justice is however looked upon a little while later as Venus goes to Jupiter and asks why the Trojans are being made to suffer after doing nothing wrong. Jupiter tells her not to fear as justice will be done and Rome will be founded. Such behaviour seems to recur constantly throughout the Aeneid. For example, in book 8 we learn of the betrayal that a Tuscan tribe suffered at the hands of Mezentius, and in book 9 he continues his evil ways killing Trojans. The Gods have decided to stay out of the battle and so the following events have nothing to do with the justice that is familiar in epic poems. Both Mezentius and his son Lausus are killed, by Aeneid. I see these deaths as acts of revenge rather than justice, although Lausus’ death is more deserving. The death of his son is Mezentius’ true punishment. I see these deaths as acts of revenge because Mezentius tried to kill Aeneid, as well as all the other innocent people and the treachery he brought upon the aforementioned Tuscan tribe, and so Aeneas kills them. The fact that the innocent Lausus dies shows that the ‘justice’ portrayed in the Aeneid is much more malicious, and it doesn’t just affect the culprit. There’s also the case of the unfortunate people in the underworld that must wait 100 years to cross the river, through no fault of their own. Justice really does seem obscure in the Aeneid. Another instance of this is when the people of Carthage feel Dido’s death was just, simply because she fell in love with the wrong man, and through no fault of her own. I believe Turnus’ death to be the best example of the incomprehensible justice served in the Aeneid. His justice only prevails once they see fit, once it fits in with their plans. In the end, it becomes obvious that while justice is a powerful motivator and regulator in the lives of mortals, it is the will of the immortals that truly controls their lives, and their disfigured system of justice On the other hand, there are moments when actual justice is served. Examples include the groups beyond the river in the underworld and the story of Hercules and the giant for example. He goes to extreme lengths to kill the giant for all the robbery and murder he’s committed, and it’s just that Hercules puts a stop to it, even though it’s brought about by someone who isn’t quite immortal, and so possibly not what the gods perceive as justice. Although we’ve already established that the gods’ perspective is fairly warped in the Aeneid. The other case of actual justice involves king Minos, who spends eternity hearing the cases of people, unjustly executed, and finally getting the plea their cases. They are finally being treated fairly, even if it is beyond life. In the Odyssey however, deaths and misfortunes seem to come about through the idea of justice, and nothing else- no malicious or unfair punishments seem to prevail i. e. there seems to be a point behind them, rather than them just being malicious acts of immortals. For example, Zeus becomes angered at Odysseus because his men eat the sun god’s cattle, despite being warned not to; however he doesn’t let Odysseus die, because the sun god only asks that the crew be punished, because after all, Odysseus did warn them. However he does unavoidably get caught in the cross fire and this is how he winds up on Calypso’s island in the first place. Another example is Poseidon. He makes Odysseus’ aqua adventures a nightmare because he impairs Poseidon’s son Polyphemus’ vision, which goes against the rules of Xenia really. It is of course, Odysseus’ own fault because he becomes arrogant about what he did to Polyphemus, by telling him his name, after he’s left. Therefore it’s just and fair to punish him. Even though he’s such a great hero, he does a wrong act and is punished as any other man would be. Then of course, there is the case of the suitors; the epic conclusion to the Odyssey. Odysseus finally returns to find all the suitors and some of the maids running riot in his home, having raunchy sex, eating all the food, and drinking away his wealth. Odysseus is of course a bit bothered by this, so he decides, and Athene, who borrows Mentor’s image again, agrees that he, Telemachus and a couple of close friends will pick up their weapons and launch them through any part of the suitors they see fit. The fact that Athene helps proves that the act is just. Rarely do gods help out in a way that we can perceive as just in the Aeneid, because most of the time, the punishments are just vicious or over-exaggerated. So anyway, Telemachus sees to it that the ill-mannered maids are hung until they stop twitching, and Odysseus destroys all the suitors so that he and Penelope can live happily ever after, as they justly deserve. By the end of homer’s poem, everyone has been served the justice they’ve earned, both good and bad. I think it’s fair to say that justice is very important in both plays, but as a modern day reader, it’s easier to understand the justice in the Odyssey because at times, the events in the Aeneid seem so obscure.

New Step by Step Roadmap for 2015 Argument Essay Ap Lang Samples

New Step by Step Roadmap for 2015 Argument Essay Ap Lang Samples The 2015 Argument Essay Ap Lang Samples Trap If you're attempting to refute the argument, you're discover the weakest spots there. The very first thing which you should do is read the question, then write your gut reaction. A house without brick and mortar won't fall, but nevertheless, it won't be a really fine home to inhabit. Do not attempt to analyze all strategies in every passage In order to earn your work less hectic, it's advised that you choose about a few outstanding rhetorical strategies in the passage to utilize in your argument. There are an unbelievable number of gray areas within the content that you should learn how to approach from every angle. The ideal way to organize the body of the essay needs to be chronological format. As soon as you learn your very first new topic or cover a crucial idea, review it that night. Anyway, it's also wise to outline the purpose of the author in making the sp eech or essay. You are able to employ the Best Essay Writing Service and receive an original custom made essay written by a seasoned writer. If you're new to writing argumentative essays, there are a number of essential factors which you can learn that could help you compose a much better argumentative essay. In addition, there are sample essays you are able to utilize to assist in improving your writing. Each ought to be guided by means of a topic sentence that's a relevant portion of the introductory thesis statement. Ensure that your very first paragraph is neat. The body paragraphs are the center of the essay. Each paragraph of the essay should clearly outline the region of the text which is being analyzed. 2015 Argument Essay Ap Lang Samples - What Is It? In any case, disagreement with the argument of the author doesn't mean you have to discredit their work. The essays test your writing ability in a number of modes and for a range of purposes. Your essay should consist of recent statistics and data from reliable sources. This kind of essay requires a good framework and superb support. Facts, Fiction and 2015 Argument Essay Ap Lang Samples Writing a persuasive, argumentative essay can be challenging, and at times it can find a little confusing. It's a course in English that's applied in studying rhetoric elements. Whenever you do take practice tests, it can be of assi stance to find another person to assist grade your free-response essays depending on the rubric. Over the span of the school year, you're going to be exposed to new vocabulary that you are able to use in the exam, along with new manners of writing, sentence structures, methods of research and critical thinking strategies that can help you get ready for the exam. When you have access to multiple practice tests, you may even take complete tests at distinct times in the studying procedure to observe how you've improved and what you still should work on. At the close of the calendar year, it's your choice to be sure you understand everything to produce a 5 on the AP exam. Your exam is broken into portions. It is a larger question than students are accustomed to encountering on an AP test. If you anticipate procrastinating and not doing what is asked by your AP teachers, be ready for a rude awakening at the start of the school year in the shape of a lousy project grade. Not just that but students will be in a position to access their online courses and be in a position to follow along with the lecture through powerpoints. If at all possible, begin at the start of the semester. 2015 Argument Essay Ap Lang Samples - Is it a Scam? Build an obvious argument In order to acquire the ideal score that you want, do not just throw in words to fill in the webpage. It is not simple to turn into successful and hardly anyone is genuinely successful but it's a noble aim to strive for. Needless to say, it's also advisable to bear in mind a conclusion isn't absolutely necessary so as to be given a high score. It's highly recommended that you first organize your points in a draft so as to plan w ell the way the argument and points ought to be framed.

Fashion brand ASOS - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 696 Downloads: 9 Date added: 2017/09/23 Category Advertising Essay Type Narrative essay Tags: Study Essay Did you like this example? INTRODUCTION ASOS. com is the UK’s leading online fashion retailer established in 2000. It targeted 16-32 years old fashion conscious customers. It offers own-label, branded and designer fashion goods. Its up-to-date fashions are available to buy through the internet. ASOS. com uses the product life cycle to make sure products always meet customer needs. asos. c Q3: what is meant by horizontal integration and vertical integration? HORIZONTAL INTEGRATION * The acquisition of additional business activities at the same level of the value chain. This occurs when a company takes over, or merges with a direct competitor. * This can be achieved by internal expansion or external expansion. ADVANTAGES * Economies of scale- achieved by selling more of the same product, for example, by geographic expansion. * Economies of scope- achieved by sharing common to different products. * Increased market power. * Reduction in the costs of international trade by operating factories in for eign markets. * Reduction in competition. * Fulfilling customer expectations’ EXAMPLES * A media company’s ownership of Radio, Television, Newspapers, Magazines, Books. Pharmaceutical companies frequently combine forces to share research and development expenses to bring new products to market. According to research by Henderson and Cockburn in 1996, firms involved in drug discovery realize economies of scope by sustaining diverse portfolios of research projects that capture both internal and external knowledge spillovers * The formation of Brook Bond Lipton India ltd. Through the merger of Lipton India and Brook Bond. * The merger of Bank of Mathura with ICICI (Industrial Credit and Investment Corporation of India) Bank. VERTICAL INTEGRATION it acquires a business at a different stage in the chain of production. * It may acquire businesses that were previously its suppliers or its customers. * Backward vertical integration means, merger with the input supplier. * Forw ard vertical integration means, merger with the output distribution chain. ADVANTAGES * A secure source of raw material or distribution channel * Protection and control over assets and services required to produce and deliver valuable products and services. * Access to n ew business opportunities and new forms of technologies DISADVATAGES Higher monetory and organizational costs EXAMPLES * Shell and BP in oil industry often adopt a vertically integrated structure. This means they use the supply chain from crude oil exploration to the refined product sale at their own gas stations. Q1:In what ways a company benefits from growth? Key points Product Lifecycle The product life cycle shows the stages a product goes through over time with regard to its sales. In the fashion industry, product life cycles can be short because trends and tastes change quickly. An ASOS. com own-brand dress may follow this cycle: Introduction. The dress is put on the website and advertised. For instance, links to new products are put on the home page. * Rapid growth. The product tends to promote itself as people see the item in magazines and newspapers. ASOS. com must ensure it has enough stock to meet demand. * Maturity. ASOS. com reminds people of the product through features on its website or in its magazine. * Saturation. ASOS. com may cut prices to clear stock and allow new products to take over. * Decline. People become tired of the item. Trends move on. Product lifecycle can helps ASOS. com to: * predict revenue and work out the profitability of products * plan when products are to be added to the website or withdrawn * support products through the whole life cycle. It can plan pricing strategies to earn the most revenue at every stage. Extention strategies * ASOS com can seeks to beet rivals and increase its market share. * By using Boston Matrix ASOS. com can assess the value of the individual products and manage them. * ASOS. om should manage the Dogs by getting rid of them or cutting costs. * It must convert Question Marks and Stars into Cash Cows. * It can do this through promotion. Promotions * Promotion helps ASOS. com to inform potential customers of its products with the view to making a sale. * It can use a Customer Relationship Management system to help work out the buying patterns of its customers. * By working out what customers buy and when, it can target promotions at key sectors of the market. * ASOS. com can measures how well promotion works through Key Performance Indicators. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Fashion brand ASOS" essay for you Create order

Disease And Conditions Prostate Cancer Causes - 1727 Words

The prostate is a miniature gland that encloses the urethra under the bladder. This organ consists of a combination of tubular and alveolar glands found within smooth muscle and dense connective tissue. During sexual activity, more specifically, ejaculation, the prostate contracts and releases a fluid that plays a crucial role in activating males’ sperm, producing semen. The prostate is also important because it houses citrate, a source of nutrients for one’s body, enzymes, and cells that produce protein. Main Text Pathophysiology and Molecular Events Individuals who are diagnosed with prostate cancer are usually older men who inherit the disease genetically or have an unhealthy diet. Prostate cancer can spread in multiple ways and†¦show more content†¦The last potential method is through the blood, which takes advantage of blood vessels to spread cancer cells and allows it to invade other parts of the body. Because there are multiple ways in which cancer can spread, prostate cancer is also divided into multiple stages. In the first stage, cancer cells are discovered in one part of the prostate only. In the second stage, cancer cells have spread throughout the entire organ, but has not made its way out and onto others. In the third stage, cancer cells have made its way onto the exterior of the prostate organ. There is also a possibility that it is making its way towards the seminal vesicles. In the fourth and final stage, the cells have moved past the seminal vesicles and are starting to invade and attach to other organs, slowly spreading throughout the entire body. Patients will start to experience signs and symptoms, prior to being diagnosed with prostate cancer, that will mostly cause discomfort when urinating or pain in the abdominal and lower back region. However, it is crucial that they are diagnosed with this disease by a professional because the symptoms of prostate cancer are ex tremely similar to those of other diseases related to the prostate. It is important that they are not diagnosed with the wrong disease as this would cause more harm and danger to the patient. Population Affected Prostate cancer is a common illness among men in the United States and around the world. Authors Elaine N. Marieb and Katja

Effectiveness Of Therapeutic Play Health And Social Care Essay Free Essays

This chapter dealt with literature mention sing curative drama and painful processs and surveies related to Gate Control Theory. This chapter besides dealt with conceptual model of Melzack and Wall ( 1965 ) Gate Control Theory. CHAPTER-III RESEARCH METHODOLOGY This chapter deals with the methodological analysis selected for measuring the effectivity of curative drama on degree of hurting during endovenous canulation. We will write a custom essay sample on Effectiveness Of Therapeutic Play Health And Social Care Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now The function of methodological analysis consists of processs and techniques of carry oning a survey. ( Sharma,1990 ) Methodology is a important portion of the research under which the research worker is able to project a bluish print of the research undertaken RESEARCH APPROACH The subdivision of research attack is the basic process for carry oning a research question. In position of the nature of the job selected and aims to be accomplished, a quantitative appraising research attack was considered appropriate to measure the effectivity of curative drama before making endovenous canulation among kids admitted in selected infirmary, Salem. RESEARCH DESIGN Research design is the overall program for turn toing research worker ‘s inquiries including specification for heightening the survey ‘s unity. ( Polit and Beck, 2004 ) Choice of design is based on the intent of the survey. The research design adopted for the survey was Non-equivalent Post trial merely control group design. Group Day 1 Experimental group X O1 Control group O1 Fig-3.1: Conventional representation of research design Keies: Ten: Intervention on curative drama. O1: Post-test merely to measure the degree of hurting during endovenous canulation. VARIABLES UNDER STUDY: A variable is a mensurable or potentially mensurable constituent of an object or event that may fluctuate in quality or measure from one person, object or event to another single object or event of the same general category. ( Basavanthappa, 1998 ) The variables under the survey was the followers, Independent variable: Harmonizing to Polit and Hungler, ( 1999 ) the independent variable is believed to care or act upon the behavior and thoughts. In this survey the independent variable refers to curative drama before making endovenous canulation. Dependent Variable: The dependant variable is the variable, the research worker is interested in understanding, explicating and predating. ( Polit and Hungler, 1999 ) In this survey the dependant variable refers to the degree of hurting during endovenous canulation among kids. Extraneous Variable: The variables that are present in research environment which may interfere with research findings by moving as unwanted independent variable. ( Woods and Khan, 1994 ) In this survey it refers to selected demographic variables such as age in old ages, gender and behavioral response to endovenous canulation. Setting OF THE STUDY: The scene of the survey is the physical location and status in which information aggregation takes topographic point. ( Polit and Hungler, 2009 ) The survey was conducted in Pranav Hospital, Salem. It is located near to New Bus Stand and about 2kms distance from the establishment, where the research worker is analyzing. The infirmary is 150 stratified multi forte infirmary with 30 bed in Paediatric unit. Population: Harmonizing to Polit and Beck. , ( 2004 ) population is the full collection of instances in which a research worker is interested. Population may be of two types, accessible population and mark population. In this survey two are described. Target Population: It refers to the population that the research worker wishes to do a generalization. In this research the mark population was kids acquiring admitted in Pranav Hospital. Accessible Population: It refers to the sum of instances which confirm to the designed standards and which is accessible to the research worker as the pool of topics or objects. In this survey the population consisted of kids acquiring admitted in Pranav Hospital who were undergoing endovenous canulation during the period of survey. Sample: Harmonizing to Polit and Beck. , ( 2004 ) sampling is the procedure of choosing a part of population to stand for the full population. Sample is the subset of population elements. In this survey the samples selected from kids of age group 3-6 old ages undergoing endovenous canulation in Pranav Hospital who fulfil the inclusion standards. Sampling TECHNIQUE AND SAMPLE SIZE Thomas. , ( 1990 ) defines trying is the procedure of choosing units for survey from a population. In this survey Purposive sampling technique was used to choose sample. Sample size was 20 for control group and 20 for experimental group. CRITERIA FOR SAMPLE SELECTION Inclusion Standards: The topic was selected based on the preset standards, aˆ? Children between the age group of 3-6yrs. aˆ? Children who had admitted in pediatric ward for the intervention through endovenous canulation. Exclusion Standards: aˆ? Mentally challenged kids. aˆ? Children with critically sick or of exigency admittance. DESCRIPTION AND INTERPRETATION OF TOOLS The instrument selected in research must be vechile that obtain best informations for pulling decision to the survey. ( Treece and Treece, 1986 ) The tool developed based on the information gathered from relevant literature reappraisal. The content cogency of the demographic informations and independent variable was established by obtaining sentiment from 5 experts ( 3 Nursing experts and 2 Medical experts ) . Tool -1: Demographic informations: It includes age in old ages, gender, behavioral response to endovenous canulation of the kid. Demographic information of the instrument was non scored but used for descriptive analysis. Tool-2: Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale: This evaluation graduated table is recommended for kids of ages 3and older. It consists of mark 0,2,4,6,8,10. During the clip of endovenous canulation the facial look of the kid was assessed by the research worker with this hurting graduated table. Face 0-no injury, Face 2-hurts merely a small spot, Face 4-hurts a little more, Face 6-hurts even more, Face 8-hurts a whole batch, Face 10-hurt every bit much as we can conceive of. Based on the hiting the hurting degree was assessed. Development of curative drama for direction of painful processs: A curative drama on direction of painful processs was prepared to diminish the degree of hurting during endovenous canulation. The stuffs used were venflon without stillet, plaster, stuffed doll with endovenous injection site, splint. The presentation was done by the research worker utilizing the needed stuffs and so the kid was allowed to pattern the endovenous canulation for the doll. This method was done before making endovenous canulation to the kid by the staff nurse. VALIDITY OF THE TOOL AND INDEPENDENT VARIABLE: The content was validated by the same 5 experts who validated the tool ( demographic variable ) and independent variable as per the standard. Harmonizing to experts suggestions the necessary images were included in the independent variable. It was translated in Tamil and once more retranslated in English by the linguistic communication experts severally. PILOT STUDY: Pilot survey is the little scale version or a trail tally done in readying for major survey. ( Polit and Hungler, 1999 ) The Pilot survey was conducted in SKS Hospital at Salem. After acquiring the written permission from concerned authorization, researcher conducted survey from 4.08.2010 to 11.08.2010 among kids who underwent endovenous canulation. The intent of the survey was explained to the samples and their parent every bit good as written consent was obtained from them. The entire size was 2 for control group and 2 for experimental group. Purposive sampling technique was used for sample choice. For the control group without giving intercession, the degree of hurting was assessed. A concise information analysis done by utilizing descriptive and illative statistics. The consequence of the survey showed the average station trial degree of hurting for control group as 90 % and for experimental group as 50 % . After that the ‘t ‘ value was calculated to happen out the important difference between the degree of hurting for control group and experimental group at P lt ; 0.05 degree of significance. No important difference was seen between the control group and experimental group. No association was found between station trial degree of hurting and their age, gender and behavioral response of the kid. Since the sample size was merely 2 for control group and 2 for the experimental group. so the survey was non found as important in ‘t ‘ trial and chi-square trial. DATACOLLECTION PROCEDURE: Harmonizing to Polit and Hungler. , ( 1999 ) , â€Å" Data aggregation is the assemblage of information needed to turn to a research job † . Data aggregation for the survey was done from 18.08.2010 to 05.09.2010 in Pranav Hospital at Salem. Initially the research worker got the permission from the concerned authorization. Then the population were identified from the kids who have got admitted in the infirmary were selected by utilizing purposive sampling technique based on the inclusion standards. The sample size was 20 kids as control group and 20 as experimental group and the intent of the survey was explained to the samples and their parent every bit good as willingness to take part was assured by taking written consent of the parent of each sample and giving confidence for maintaining their information confidentially. At first the control group was selected and no intercession was given. On the twenty-four hours of admittance the hurting degree was assessed, during endovenous canulation by utilizing Wong-Baker Faces Pain Rating Scale. After the control group got finished, the experimental group was selected by purposive sampling technique. On day-1, after the kid got admitted, the parents and the kid were introduced by the research worker. The intercession on curative drama given. A particular room was provided to them in the presence of playthings. The research worker clearly explained and taught about the curative drama by utilizing a stuffed doll and the other needful stuffs. The research worker demonstrated the curative drama. Then the research worker made the kid to pattern the endovenous canulation on the doll by doing an unreal endovenous canulation site utilizing a venflon without stillet. After the intercession the research worker identified that the kid got relaxation from the emphasis of hospitalization. The continuance of the intercession was 20 proceedingss. After the intercession the kid was made to be ready for endovenous canulation. The endovenous canulation was done by the staff nurse. The post-test degree of hurting was assessed during the endovenous canulation by utilizing the same tool. Plan FOR DATA ANALYSIS Collected informations were planned for analysis by utilizing the frequence distribution, descriptive ststistics ( mean, SD, average mark per centum ) and illative statistics ( pupil ‘t ‘ trial, Chi-square trial ) .This was done to happen out the effectivity of curative drama degree of hurting among kids who underwent endovenous canulation. Summary This chapter dealt with the methodological analysis of how the research worker had planned and organized for the informations aggregation, the method of hiting and description of tool, pilot survey, informations aggregation process and program for informations analysis. How to cite Effectiveness Of Therapeutic Play Health And Social Care Essay, Essay examples

Catherine the Great of all Russia Essay Example For Students

Catherine the Great of all Russia Essay Catherine II (a. k. a. Catherine the Great) Catherine II, or Catherine the Great, empress of all Russia, did much to continue the process of Westernization reforms began by Peter the Great. Catherine was devoted to art, literature, science, and politics. Many people say she had a great gift and was a great leader, thus she was awarded with the name the Great She helped develop schools, hospitals, and many other organizations for the country. She was a shrewd leader and autocrat and helped to continue and further reforms made by Peter the Great, finally making Russia a permanent European power. Originally named Sophie Frederick Augusta, Princess of Anholt-Zerbst, she was born in Stettin on May 2, 1729, the daughter of the German prince of Anholt-Zerbst . At the age of fifteen she went to Russia and married Grand Duke Peter of Holstein, heir to the Russian throne. The marriage was despondent, but intelligent and ambitious Catherine soon managed to assemble up a liaison of supporters. On October 1, 1754, Catherine gave birth to her son, the future emperor, Paul Petrovich Romanov, and three years later on December 20, 1957, she gave birth to her daughter, Anna Petrovna Romanov. Elizabeth died on December 25, 1761, and Catherines husband succeeded as Peter III. Erratic, unstable, and contemptuous of his Russian subjects, the new ruler soon made himself unpopular, especially with certain German officers. Led by Alexei Orlov (whose brother Grigori was Catherines lover) the officers staged a coup in June 1762. Peter was deposed (and subsequently murdered) and Catherine was placed on the throne in his place. Catherine was fascinated with the philosophies and theories of the Enlightenment, and was well acquainted with the literature of the French Enlightenment, which was an important influence on her own political influence. She corresponded extensively with Voltaire and Denis Diderot, gave financial support to them and a number of other French writers, and played host to Diderot at her court in 1773. Although, this gesticulation of hospitality was partially aimed at creating a favorable image in Western Europe, she was probably sincere in her interest and her hope to apply some of the ideas of the Enlightenment to rationalize and reform the administration of the Russian Empire. Imbued with the ideas of the Enlightenment, Catherine aimed at completing the job started by Peter the Greatwesternizing Russiabut she had contradictory methods. Rather then forcing society to reform, she encouraged individual initiative in pursuit of self-interest. In the early years of her reign, she sought to win the support of the Russian gentry, and, in particular Despite her interest in legal reform, the commission she appointed for that purpose failed to accomplish its goals. But eventually, she learned how to select capable assistantsfor example, Nikita Panin in foreign affairs, Alexandre Suvorov in the military, and Grigori Potemkin in administration. Among Catherines more benevolent achievements were the foundation of the first Russian school for girls and of a medical college to provide health care for her subjects. In the early years of her reign, Catherine sought to win the approval of the gentry, which was a small part of Russias population. She succeeded to a degree with the upper class, but did nothing for the overwhelming majority of the populationthe enserfed peasantry. Conservatism Peasant unrest culminated in a great revolt (1773-75), led by Cossack Yemelyan Pugachov, that raged over much of the Volga River Basin and the Ural Mountains before it was finally ruthlessly crushed by military force. The revolt marked a turn toward more reactionary internal policy. The Cossack army was disbanded, and other Cossacks were granted special privileges in an effort to transform them into loyal supporters of the autocracy. The revolt alerted Catherine to the necessity for reform. In 1775, she reorganized the local administration, integrated the Cossacks into the regular army, and put the serfs belonging to the Russian Orthodox Church under the administration of the state. In 1785, she issued two chartersto the towns and to the nobilityto involve the educated classed in local administration in return for protection of their status and property rights. .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 , .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .postImageUrl , .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 , .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00:hover , .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00:visited , .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00:active { border:0!important; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00:active , .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00 .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u17b7feae223e838bfa305a55320aff00:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: A People's History Of The United States Chapter Fo EssayIn similar spirit, Catherine established the Free Economic Society to encourage the modernization of agriculture and industry. She promoted trade and the development of underpopulated regions by inviting foreign settlers such as the Volga Germans, and she founded new towns (Odessa, for example) and enterprises on the Black Sea. Herself a prolific writer, Catherine patronized arts and letters, permitted the establishment of private printing presses, and relaxed censorship rules. Under her guidance the University of Moscow and the Academy of Sciences became internationally recognized centers of learning; she also increased the number of state and private schools. As a result, the Russian nobility, and some townspeople, also began to organize associations for the promotion of schools and publications. Catherine, who did not want to surrender control over social and cultural policy, viewed these activities with suspicion. The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 and the publication of Alexandre Radishchevs journey from St. Petersburg to Moscow in 1790, in which the author denounced the evils of serfdom, the immorality of society, and the abuses of government, prompted Catherine to impose repressive measures, which in turn alienated many of the educated. Finally, Catherine vastly expanded the Russian empire. Following the two successful wars against Turkey (the Russo-Turkish Wars of 1768-74 and 1787-92), Russia secured the Crimea and thus realized a centuries-old dream of establishing itself on the north shore of the black Sea. The fertile lands of the Ukraine were also opened for settlement and soon became the granary of Europe. Catherine also participated in the partitions of Poland (1772,1792, and 1795) bringing a large part of that country under Russian rule. Catherine had twenty-one lovers, and her spirit doctor inspected them all before they could be her lover but Sergei Vasiljevits Saltykov (father of her first son) and Grigori Orlov (father of second son) were special to her. Upon the death of Catherine on November 17, 1796, modern Russian society was organized and its culture had struck firm roots. Russia was also playing a determining role in world affairs.